Table 6 |
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Common risk factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis underlying rheumatic diseases |
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1. Traditional |
Age |
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Smoking |
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Dyslipidemia |
|
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Hypertension |
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Diabetes mellitus |
|
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Immobilization |
|
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Sedentary lifestyle |
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2. Inflammatory |
Acute-phase proteins (C-reactive protein, fibrinogen) |
|
Lipoprotein (a) |
|
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Folate and vitamin B12 deficiency |
|
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Decreased paraoxonase activity |
|
|
CD4+/CD28- T cells |
|
|
Autoantibodies (anti-CCP, rheumatoid factor, anti-oxLDL, anti-phospholipid antibody, anti-hsp) |
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Proatherogenic cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6) |
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|
Chemokines |
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Angiogenic growth factors |
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Matrix-degrading metalloproteinases |
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|
Increased cell adhesion molecule expression |
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Hyperhomocysteinemia |
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Defective apoptosis |
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3. Iatrogenic |
Methotrexate – bimodal? |
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Corticosteroids – bimodal? |
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|
|
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anti-CCP, anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide; anti-oxLDL, anti-oxidized low-density lipoprotein. |
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Szekanecz and Koch Arthritis Research & Therapy 2008 10:224 doi:10.1186/ar2515 |
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